Monday | February 3, 2025
By the time he died at just 32, Alexander the Great had reshaped the northern hemisphere, conquering vast territories across three continents and ruling lands from Egypt to present-day India—over two millennia ago.
Since his death in 323 BCE, the world has remained fascinated by Alexander, who set out from his kingdom of Macedon (now part of Greece) at the age of 20 to overthrow the mighty Persian Empire. His conquests extended as far as the Indus River in present-day Pakistan, even crossing into modern India, before he died in Babylon—now in Iraq.
More than 2,000 years later, his legacy endures in countries as far-flung as Egypt, Turkey, and Pakistan, as well as in Greece, where a remarkable archaeological site opened to the public in 2024. The Royal Palace of Aigai, the ceremonial center of the Macedonian dynasty, was where Alexander was crowned after the assassination of his father, Philip II. Around the world, dozens of historic sites still connect visitors to the man—and the legend.
A Mysterious Death
Alexander’s accomplishments in just 32 years were extraordinary. Paul Cartledge, AG Leventis professor emeritus of Greek culture at the University of Cambridge, describes him as a leader who “redrew the map of the world” by force, whereas his father, Philip, had relied more on diplomacy.
Crowned king of Macedon in 336 BCE at 20 years old, Alexander spent two years consolidating his rule in Europe, suppressing revolts in southern Greece and the Balkans. By 334 BCE, he had turned his sights eastward, leading his army into Asia to fulfill Philip’s dream of conquering the Persian Empire—the largest of its time.
Over the next decade, he campaigned across modern-day Turkey, the Middle East, and as far as Afghanistan and Pakistan, defeating Persian King Darius III and claiming the empire for himself. By the age of 30, his domain stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Indus River.
Determined to push further, Alexander advanced into the Indian subcontinent, making conquests in present-day Pakistan’s Punjab province before his exhausted army refused to go any farther. On the journey home, he fell gravely ill with a fever that lasted two weeks and died in Babylon.
His body was taken to Egypt and reportedly entombed in Alexandria, where it was revered by figures including Cleopatra and Julius Caesar before vanishing around the fifth century. Its whereabouts remain unknown.
Alexander never lost a battle, and though his empire fractured after his death, Greek remained the official administrative language in the region for centuries. “That’s why Greek spread all over the Middle East and why the New Testament is written in Greek,” Cartledge explains.
While many Athenians despised him for imposing monarchy over democracy—and some Zoroastrians still view him as a villain for destroying sacred texts in Persepolis—Alexander has been mythologized into near-divine status over the centuries.
Cartledge believes Alexander’s achievements were unparalleled. “It takes an exceptional personality to accomplish what he did,” he says, noting that only a handful of leaders, such as Genghis Khan, compare to his legacy.
‘He overcame everything’
Alexander the Great’s story is anything but a dry history lesson. From the moment he set out to conquer the world, his legend has captivated audiences across centuries and cultures.
During the Roman era, writers such as Arrian and Plutarch penned biographies of Alexander. Later, the “Alexander Romance,” a semi-fictionalized account of his life written in third-century Alexandria, became a literary sensation. This tale was translated into numerous languages—including Arabic and Persian—spreading his story across the globe. Pierre Briant, professor emeritus at the Collège de France and an expert on Alexander’s era, notes that the legend was adapted “into virtually every language in the world.”
By 1010 CE, Persian poet Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh (or Book of Kings) reimagined Alexander as Sikander, a Persian hero and half-brother to Darius III. In this version, rather than destroying Persia’s culture, Alexander preserves its Zoroastrian faith. The story spread widely, reaching as far as Indonesia.
Today, Alexander’s name endures in cities like Alexandria in Egypt and Kandahar in Afghanistan, a testament to his vast influence. His appeal, says historian Paul Cartledge, lies in a combination of his youth—achieving so much before his death at 32—and the sheer scale of his journey.
“He reached modern-day Afghanistan, Pakistan, and parts of India,” Cartledge explains. “His conquests weren’t always peaceful, but he overcame every obstacle: mountains, rivers, war elephants, scythed chariots. Nothing stopped him.”
The Modern-Day Alexander Effect
Even now, Alexander continues to inspire.
UK-based tour operator Peter Sommer owes his career to him. As a teenager, Sommer had no interest in history—until a teacher showed him a map of Alexander’s route.
“My jaw hit the desk,” he recalls. “I went home and said, ‘I want to study ancient history.’”
That moment changed his path. Sommer pursued a degree in ancient history and archaeology, focusing his studies on Alexander. He even embarked on a 2,000-mile trek across modern Turkey, retracing Alexander’s march from Troy to the site of the Battle of Issus, where he first defeated Darius III.
“How could I understand Alexander without seeing the places he went?” he says. “I’d never traveled before, but I fell in love with both history and exploration.”
After working on a similar project for the BBC, Sommer founded Peter Sommer Travels, a company offering cultural and archaeological tours. His Alexander-themed trips in Greece and Turkey attract a diverse audience—not just history buffs or military enthusiasts.
“We have plenty of female travelers who are absolutely fascinated by Alexander,” he says.
That could be due to his surprisingly modern approach to women. Unlike many ancient conquerors who saw rape and pillage as spoils of war, Alexander largely rejected such brutality. A famous example comes from his victory over Darius at Issus. Capturing the Persian royal family—including Darius’ mother, Sisygambis—he treated them with dignity rather than enslaving them. Sisygambis, the story goes, even came to love Alexander as a second son, and she reportedly died of grief after his passing.
For many, retracing Alexander’s path is an emotional experience. One traveler, who writes the Mega Alexandros blog, recalls a powerful moment in Iran’s Zagros Mountains when a sandstorm swept in from Mesopotamia.
“The bus stopped, and the wind whipped around me, sand stinging my face,” they remember. “I thought, ‘Alexander must have had days like this. His army marched through these very conditions.’”
In Uzbekistan, traveling the long road from Tashkent to Bukhara, they had another revelation:
“I was on an eight-hour bus ride, exhausted, and I thought, ‘My God, how did they do it? His soldiers marched at this pace for months. Seeing the landscape in person changes everything.’”
For those who follow in his footsteps, Alexander remains more than just a historical figure—he is an enduring force, his charisma still shining through the centuries.
“What amazes me,” says Sommer, “is how a single man could lead the largest military campaign in history by the age of 32. His influence is still felt today.”
A Legend Shaped by Time
Alexander the Great belongs to a rare group of historical figures—often bordering on the mythical—whose legacy evolves with each generation’s values and aspirations.
“The histories keep changing,” says tour operator Peter Sommer. “He’s been rewritten countless times to fit different eras. People see him as a kind of Renaissance man, shaping him to match their own ideals.”
Paul Cartledge, professor emeritus at the University of Cambridge, agrees. “We project our dreams, fantasies, and even nightmares onto those we call ‘great.’ They’re not necessarily good, but they achieve things far beyond what ordinary people can.”
Yet, Alexander was also a master of his own mythology. More than 2,000 years later, much of what we believe about him comes from his own carefully crafted narrative. He even linked himself to Achilles, Homer’s legendary warrior, weaving elements of romance and homoeroticism into his legacy.
While Cartledge acknowledges Alexander’s later massacres as “a real stain on his memory,” he remains fascinated by him. “I admire him intensely. He was incredibly brave, charismatic, and had extraordinary qualities—but he also committed terrible acts. He was, without question, one of a kind.”
A Controversial Legacy
Not everyone sees Alexander the Great as an unparalleled visionary. Among those offering a different perspective is historian Pierre Briant, an expert on both the Macedonian and Achaemenid (Persian) empires and author of A Short Introduction: Alexander the Great. He challenges the idea that Alexander achieved something unprecedented, arguing that his conquest must be understood in the broader context of history.
The key, Briant explains, lies in Alexander’s primary target: the Persian Empire.
“You can’t talk about Alexander as if he were some supernatural figure operating in isolation,” he says. “If you discuss conquest, you have to acknowledge the Achaemenid Empire. The Persian kings had already built and ruled this vast territory for 200 years before Alexander arrived. He wasn’t the first.”
So why, more than two millennia later, do we celebrate Alexander but not Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Persian Empire in 550 BCE? Briant argues the reason is simple: Eurocentrism.
“History has been written from a European perspective,” he explains. “Alexander has dominated European thought from antiquity to modern times. He was seen as the first ‘conqueror of the East,’ setting a precedent for European imperialism. In the 18th and 19th centuries, historians even framed his victories as foreshadowing the triumphs of European armies over the Ottomans. He became a symbol in European political mythology—deeply tied to how Europe perceives Asia and the Middle East.”
In one of his books, Briant explores the idea of Alexander as the “First European.” He points out that Greek and Roman historians largely ignored the Persian Empire, effectively erasing it from mainstream historical narratives.
“When I talk to colleagues, especially in the U.S., who study Alexander, I ask them, ‘Why aren’t you also interested in the Persian Empire?’ Some reply, ‘It’s too complicated—it’s another world.’ But in reality, it’s the same world.”
Briant is particularly critical of how popular culture presents Alexander, dismissing Oliver Stone’s 2004 film Alexander as “completely foolish” for failing to provide Persian context.
Conquest or Cultural Exchange?
One of the most enduring narratives about Alexander is his so-called “Hellenization” of the East—the spread of Greek language and culture after his conquests. But Briant challenges this, arguing that local cultures remained vibrant and intact.
“The idea that Greek culture replaced existing traditions is misleading,” he says. “Egyptians, Babylonians, and others continued using their own languages. It wasn’t a case of Greek dominance but rather a meeting of cultures.”
Indeed, Alexander’s own actions suggest he embraced Persian traditions rather than imposing Greek ones. He scandalized his troops by adopting Persian dress, married Roxana—a woman from present-day Afghanistan—and incorporated Persian soldiers into his army.
While modern audiences may interpret this as multiculturalism, Briant sees it as pragmatism.
“Alexander was at war for 13 years—his main concern was maintaining control over his army,” he explains. “By the end, his forces were predominantly Iranian. Maybe he cared about cultural integration, but his real priority was keeping his military intact.”
The same, he argues, applies to his marriage to Roxana, which was likely a political alliance rather than an act of personal conviction. Even Alexander’s famous treatment of the Persian royal family, including Darius III’s mother, Sisygambis, was strategic. Cartledge agrees, noting that Alexander’s respectful treatment of Persian elites was part of his broader plan to legitimize his rule.
Rewriting the Narrative
Briant doesn’t deny Alexander’s military brilliance, courage, or intelligence, but he stresses that the Macedonian king wasn’t forging new paths—he was seizing control of an empire that already existed.
“His main objective was to conquer the Persian Empire and its borders,” Briant says. “That’s why understanding Persia is crucial. You can’t truly understand Alexander without knowing Darius III, the last Persian king.”
Briant’s book Darius in the Shadow of Alexander explores this dynamic, but he believes an even greater figure is overlooked: Darius I.
“The real visionary was Darius I, the empire’s greatest conqueror and organizer,” he says. Recent translations of thousands of clay tablets from Persepolis, in modern Iran, reveal just how advanced his administration was.
Cartledge acknowledges Darius I’s accomplishments, praising his tolerance for different religions. However, he maintains that Alexander’s impact was greater.
“As a Greek historian, I’d argue that Alexander’s conquest made the empire even more remarkable,” Cartledge says. “He fused Greek and Persian cultures, creating something new. Darius I was extraordinary—but Alexander’s achievements reshaped history on an even grander scale.”
In Alexander’s Footsteps
For those looking to walk in Alexander’s path, history has left behind remarkable traces of his world.
In modern-day Iran, visitors can explore the remnants of the Persian Empire at Persepolis, Susa, and Pasargadae—the first capital of the Achaemenid dynasty. These sites stand as enduring symbols of the empire Alexander conquered.
In northern Greece, the ruins of Pella, Alexander’s birthplace, offer a glimpse into his early life. Nearby, at Vergina (ancient Aigai), an underground museum houses the spectacular tomb of his father, Philip II, alongside other Macedonian royals. Above it, the recently opened royal palace offers further insight into the kingdom he left behind.
South of Vergina, at the foot of Mount Olympus, lies Dion, where Alexander made sacrifices to Zeus before launching his Persian campaign. Further east, past Thessaloniki (named after his half-sister), is Philippi, a city renamed by Philip II after its conquest. A museum inscription there records a ruling by Alexander himself on a boundary dispute, a rare direct connection to his governance.
Tracing Alexander Beyond Greece
In Turkey, the Istanbul Archaeology Museums house two statues of Alexander and the famous Alexander Sarcophagus. This intricately carved 4th-century BCE artifact, discovered in Lebanon, depicts dramatic battle scenes from his life.
Legends and unverified theories also link him to other sites across the northern hemisphere. In Bulgaria, the ancient Thracian city of Perperikon, perched on a hilltop, is said to be the legendary Oracle of Dionysus, where Alexander may have been foretold his destiny before setting out for Persia.
One of the most tantalizing mysteries surrounding Alexander is the fate of his remains. Some speculate that his body was stolen from Alexandria by Venetian raiders who mistook it for the relics of St. Mark. Could his bones, now enshrined in St. Mark’s Basilica in Venice, actually belong to the legendary conqueror? The truth remains unknown.
The End of the Rainbow
Alexander’s ambitions died with him. While his exact plans remain a mystery, many believe he had set his sights on the Persian Gulf and possibly northern Africa.
But while his life was cut short, his legend endures. Despite his flaws, his relentless drive continues to inspire.
“He never spared himself,” says historian Paul Cartledge. “He didn’t play the long game. He pushed himself to achieve as much as possible in the shortest time—perhaps sensing his fate.”
For his admirers, Alexander’s story is more than just history—it’s a testament to unwavering determination.
“He was a man on a mission,” says the Mega Alexandros blogger. “He chased his end of the rainbow, never doubting he would reach it.”